System and method for generating information on remainder of measurement using sensor data

ABSTRACT

A method may include obtaining sensor data that include a plurality of sensor returns from an environment of an autonomous vehicle. A first set of features may be extracted from the sensor data. The first set of features may be processed with a machine learning model to generate, for at least a subset of the plurality of sensor returns, a first output that classifies a respective sensor return as corresponding to an object or non-object and a second output that indicates a property of the object. The sensor returns classified as corresponding to objects may be compared to a plurality of pre-classified objects to generate one or more generic object classifications. The autonomous vehicle may be controlled based at least in part on the one or more generic object classifications.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent ApplicationNo. 63/343,701, filed May 19, 2022, which is incorporated by referencein its entirety for all purposes.

BACKGROUND

A fundamental challenge in autonomous vehicle technology is collectingand interpreting information about a vehicle's surrounding environmentand executing commands to appropriately control vehicle motion to safelynavigate the vehicle through the environment. For example, one or moresensors of an autonomous vehicle (or a vehicle equipped with autonomousvehicle sensors) can capture measurement data and use the measurementdata to track and/or identify dynamic objects within the environmentsurrounding the vehicle. As the state of the objects dynamicallychanges, improvement in efficiently updating the tracking and/oridentifying of the object by using new measurement data remains desired.

SUMMARY

Implementations of the present disclosure relate to a system and amethod for generating information from sensor data using a machinelearning (ML) model and particularly to a system and a method forgenerating object presence information and object motion information onobjects that do not belong to a predetermined class of objects (e.g.,“vehicle,” “pedestrian,” “cyclist,” “road sign,” etc.). Such objects maybe referred to as “remainders” or “generics” in this disclosure.

Disclosed herein are embodiments related to a system and method forimproving latency and avoiding redundancy in collecting and interpretinginformation about a vehicle's surrounding environment and executingcommands to appropriately control vehicle motion. In someimplementations, even if other components of a perception system (e.g.,detector or tracker) fail to explain or predict an object (falsenegative) from sensor data, a remainder explainer system can cover forfalse negatives by explaining or predicting the “unexplained” sensordata and performing graceful degradation, thereby fulfilling a policy of“no measurement left behind.” In some implementations, instead ofpredicting unexplained sensor data with labels, the remainder explainersystem may predict the opposite, i.e., known objects in the world towhich the vehicle should pay attention, and take the complement of theknown object labels as labels of unexplained sensor data.

In this manner, unexplained sensor data (e.g., ground, animals, debris,balls, barrier, etc.) can be efficiently explained without usingrelatively expensive labelling techniques. Moreover, the remainderexplainer system can utilize an input of track data obtained from othercomponents of the perception system (e.g., tracker) to de-duplicateobjects from the unexplained sensor data, thereby not only avoidingredundancy but also more accurately explaining the unexplained sensordata.

In some implementations according to a first aspect of the presentdisclosure, a method includes obtaining sensor data that include aplurality of sensor returns from an environment of an autonomousvehicle. The method may include extracting a first set of features fromthe sensor data. The method may include processing the first set offeatures with a machine learning model to generate, for at least asubset of the plurality of sensor returns, a first output thatclassifies a respective sensor return as corresponding to an object ornon-object and a second output that indicates a property of the object.The method may include comparing the sensor returns classified ascorresponding to objects to a plurality of pre-classified objects togenerate one or more generic object classifications. The method mayinclude controlling the autonomous vehicle based at least in part on theone or more generic object classifications.

In some implementations according to a second aspect of the presentdisclosure, a system includes one or more processors and one or morememories operably coupled with the one or more processors. The one ormore memories may store instructions that, in response to the executionof the instructions by one or more processors, cause the one or moreprocessors to obtain sensor data comprising a plurality of sensorreturns from an environment of an autonomous vehicle. The one or moreprocessors may extract a first set of features from the sensor data. Theone or more processors may process the first set of features with amachine learning model to generate, for at least a subset of theplurality of sensor returns, a first output that classifies a respectivesensor return as corresponding to an object or non-object and a secondoutput that indicates a property of the object. The one or moreprocessors may compare the sensor returns classified as corresponding toobjects to a plurality of pre-classified objects to generate one or moregeneric object classifications. The one or more processors may controlthe autonomous vehicle based at least in part on the one or more genericobject classifications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

These and other aspects and features of the present implementations willbecome apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art upon review ofthe following description of specific implementations in conjunctionwith the accompanying figures, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a systemenvironment for autonomous vehicles according to some implementations;

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a computing systemfor training a neural network model according to some implementations;

FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a computing systemfor testing a neural network model according to some implementations;

FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a computing systemaccording to some implementations;

FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a perceptionsubsystem according to some implementations;

FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a remainderexplainer system according to some implementations;

FIG. 7A is a diagram illustrating a distribution of different kinds offoreign objects or debris (FODs); and FIG. 7B is a diagram illustratinga precision/recall (PR) curve for different operating points of aremainder explainer system according to some implementations; and

FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating an example methodology for generatinginformation on remainder of measurement according to someimplementations.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

According to certain aspects, embodiments in the present disclosurerelate to techniques for training a machine learning (ML) model andgenerating data using the trained ML model, and more particularly tosystem and method for training an ML model and generating objectpresence information and object motion information on measurement datacorresponding to unexplained or generic objects.

In order to appropriately control (or “plan”) the motion of anautonomous vehicle to navigate the vehicle through its currentenvironment, a system (e.g., a perception system) may capturemeasurement data from one or more sensors of an autonomous vehicle (or avehicle equipped with autonomous vehicle sensors) and use the data for“perception”, e.g., tracking and/or identifying dynamic objects withinthe environment surrounding the vehicle. As the state of the objectsdynamically changes, there is a need for updating the tracking and/oridentifying of the object, e.g., by using new measurement data.Conventional perception systems update a track associated with an objectby scanning data measured from the whole scene surrounding the vehicle,incurring significant delays in updating the track. For example,conventional perception systems may need to collect new measurement datafrom the whole scene surrounding the vehicle, and match or associate thenew measurement data with respective tracks of objects to identify whereall those objects are in the new scene.

A perception system may track (1) objects (or actors) like vehicles,pedestrians and cyclists, (2) “obscurants”—something motion-planningshould ignore (e.g., rain, snow, fog, smoke, exhaust, etc.), and/or (3)“generics”—matter that has not been explained as objects or obscurants(e.g., animals, debris, balls, barrier, etc.). Generating such tracks ofobscurants or generics, however, may be a complicated process thatrequires interactions among multiple perception modules, for example, atracker, a detector, and so on. There are several challenges inimplementing the perception system.

First, it may be challenging to explicitly label obscurants, train anobscurant classifier, and explain away sensor data that are believed tobe obscurants, as enumerating and labeling all types of obscurants maybe difficult. For example, there may be a ghost return fromretro-reflective reflectors (e.g., traffic signs) on the ground. Theghost returns may be a “blooming” of lidar points aroundretroreflectors, leading to spurious lidar returns around the trueobject in an empty space. The returns are hard to label because theyshow up sporadically around the true object. The returns also may behigher in elevation than the true position of the reflectors and thusfalse positive generics are spawned from them. Such obscurant failuremodes are difficult to discover without being alerted by a falsepositive first. It is also very difficult to explicitly label them evenif one is aware of such failure mode.

Second, removing ground points by using ground elevation from an atlasor a map can be very challenging as a perception system attempts ortries to detect smaller things at longer ranges. Ground elevationqueried from an atlas when running onboard can suffer accuracy problemsdue to a variety of reasons (e.g., ground surface resolution, error inlocalization), which can be exaggerated at longer ranges due to thelever-arm effect. The lever-arm effect occurs when small angular errorsin pose (especially pitch) lead to large spatial errors at longerdistances, e.g., a distance to the point of interest. This effect isanalogous to looking from a vertex to the other side of a triangle—thefurther away the side gets, the larger it gets, even though none of theangles have been changed.

Third, sometimes it is difficult to distinguish ground from realobjects. In such cases, it is hard to label the ground as obscurants.

To solve these problems, implementations of the present disclosurerelate to techniques for simplifying the process of classifying sensorreturns as objects or not objects. In some implementations, a perceptionsystem of an autonomous vehicle may include a remainder explainer systemthat uses a model (e.g., ML model) that partitions sensor data into“objects” (e.g., vehicles, pedestrians, cyclists, and other objects themotion planning system of the vehicle should care about) and“obscurants” (e.g., rain, snow, fog, smoke, exhaust, errant sensorreturns, and other things the motion planning system should ignore). Theremainder explainer system may explain the sensor measurements that arenot yet explained by other components of the perception system (e.g.,detectors or trackers). In some implementations, instead of predictingobscurants with labels and using the prediction results to explain awaysensor data, the remainder explainer system may predict the opposite,i.e., objects in the world to which the vehicle should pay attention.For example, the remainder explainer system may predict all tangibleobjects in the scene and attributes for the objects. The rest of thereturns then, by default, may be considered obscurants that the motionplanning system can ignore. In this manner, because generic objects arelabeled (e.g., as known or predetermined object categories), theremainder explainer system can take the complement of generic objectlabels as obscurant labels (with the subtlety of also including ground).For example, in a case where it is difficult to distinguish an obscurant(e.g., ground) from real objects, the remainder explainer system canhandle this case without explaining or explicitly labeling the ground.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may perform (1)classification of sensor data and (2) generation of generic tracks(e.g., generating and publishing (or reporting) generics fromunexplained sensor returns). In some implementations, the classificationof sensor data may be triggered by new measurement data coming in, whilethe generation of generic tracks may be triggered by a new track bundlecoming in.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system does not trackthe scene (or object) over time, but may track “generics” as generictracks. Here, “generics” refer to sensor returns that have beenclassified as objects and that motion-planning should not ignore butthat have not been explained as a particular type or class of object.Generics may be implemented as a type of track that is neither trackedover time (therefore no consistency of generic tracks over time isguaranteed), nor describes the boundaries of object instances. Genericsmay include information on a predicted location of matter and itsinstantaneous velocity. In some implementations, generics may bepublished or reported at the same frequency as object tracks, e.g., lessthan or equal to 20 Hz. In some implementations, the remainder explainersystem may predict for each unit in a voxelized view, information suchas obscurant-or-not, velocity and attribute (of a generic track), etc.,to publish actor information required by a motion planning system.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system can fulfil thepolicy of “no measurement left behind” by (1) handling classes nothandled by the main tracker, including animals, debris, balls, barriers,etc., (2) providing graceful degradation for the perception system bycovering for false negatives, and/or (3) recognizing static parts of theworld (e.g., barriers). In some implementations, the remainder explainersystem can explain or predict foreign objects and debris (FODs)—e.g.,objects found in inappropriate locations. Based on experimentation, mostFODs were characterized as (1) static, (2) “straddle-able” (e.g., anobject having a small size so that a vehicle can straddle over theobject), and/or (3) likely requiring camera to be detected or predicted.

In some implementations, even if other components of a perception system(e.g., detector or tracker) fail to explain or predict an object (falsenegative), the remainder explainer system can cover for false negativeby explaining or predicting the object and performing gracefuldegradation (for example, taking backup safety precaution—giving warninglike “we don't know what it is but don't hit this”). Even if an objectis not clearly detected or identified, the remainder explainer systemcan provide a low fidelity velocity profile of the object (e.g., as angeneric track), thereby fulfilling the perception system's policy of “nomeasurement left behind.” In some implementations, the remainderexplainer system can process data per voxel so that it does not identifya shape or a detailed appearance of an object.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may perform alow fidelity classification into non-ignorable objects and ignorablenon-object (“obscurant”; e.g., rain, snow, fog, smoke, exhaust, etc.).In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may performclassification into different categories: for example, vulnerable ornon-vulnerable, harmful or non-harmful, etc.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may output arange view as an output of the classification process, while othercomponents of the perception system (e.g., detector or tracker) mayoutput a bird's-eye view. The remainder explainer system may output arasterized view and/or a grid view. In some implementations, aftergenerating an output view (e.g., a rasterized view or 3-D voxel map),the remainder explainer system may take or input a location, e.g., an(x, y, z) coordinate, and check with a result of the classificationprocess on that location. If the location is already explained (e.g.,object exists) by the classification process, the remainder explainersystem may throw away (discard or remove or delete or ignore) the outputview of that location.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system can handleoff-road generic or static objects as well as on-road generic or staticobjects. In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may usea labelling scheme that only considers or detects generic objectson-road, e.g., a scheme that only labels out generic objects within acertain distance from the road region boundary, and the remainderexplainer system may perform inference only on such regions as well.Using the labelling scheme, for static objects, the remainder explainersystem may only consider or detect those on-road because a planningsystem can treat the road region boundary as something the autonomousvehicle (AV) should never go beyond, so reporting static objects beyondthe road region boundary will not change AV behaviors. Limiting labelingand inference to only on-road can improve data efficiency and reduceunnecessary labelling cost. For objects off road, the remainderexplainer system may still need to predict their velocity, in casesomething might move towards the AV's path.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system (e.g., theclassification process) may use a labelling scheme similar to that ofon-road generic objects to report and/or visualize off-road staticobjects upon requests. The remainder explainer system, however, canprovide information on off-road static objects with a precision lowerthan that of on-road objects (e.g. it may report false positive staticobjects) because AV behaviors will not be affected. In summary, theoff-road prediction can either follow a labelling scheme similar to thatof on-road prediction, or use a simplified scheme for predictingvelocity, and the remainder explainer system can afford to choose a highrecall/low precision operating point (see FIG. 7B) for off-road use.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may perform aprocess of generating of generic tracks (or “generic generator”) bypredicting a velocity vector of generics. The prediction may beperformed by (1) taking or inputting feature vectors at a current timeand a previous time, (2) applying techniques of vision or machinelearning (e.g., neural network), and (3) outputting a prediction result.In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may output avelocity vector for each sensor return (e.g., LIDAR point). In someimplementations, the remainder explainer system may further take inputsof classification and a velocity vector, and generate 3-D voxel map(e.g., voxel of 25 cm).

In some implementations, the generic generation process can outputgeneric tracks in the form of boxes, while in other implementationsgeneric tracks do not describe the boundaries of object instances. Thereare advantages to both approaches. For example, lower latency can beachieved when the boundaries are not described in generic tracks. On theother hand, when the boundaries are available in generic tracks, theboundaries can be compared with those of objects detected by a maindetector and de-duplicated from the objects detected by the maindetector, thereby more accurately detecting generics. Generic tracks mayhave instantaneous dynamics, but no cycle to cycle consistency. In someimplementations, the remainder explainer system can only report objectsthat can cause or receive “harm” in which “harm” is platform agnostic.The perception system can use reported object size to decide on“straddle ability.” In some implementations, the perception system orthe remainder explainer system can output information in form of astatic raster. The remainder explainer system, in some implementations,can generate output in such a high precision to satisfy the requirementof the perception system which has low tolerance for false positives athighway speeds. For example, the remainder explainer system can not onlyfilter out “obscurants”, but also provide reasonable dynamics estimates.The remainder explainer system also can generate output with a highrecall. For example, the remainder explainer system can report allobjects that may cause “harm” and the perception system can use reportedobject size to decide “straddle ability.” The remainder explainer systemcan also generate output at long range. For example, outputs can have arange of 160 m behind for merges, a range of 200 m ahead for stoppingfor any obstacle, or a range of 300 m ahead for sufficient time to lanechange.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may classifypoints into object(s) or obscurant(s) in a range-view. After performinga clustering (e.g., some naive clustering), the classification processmay send (or ship) the clustering or classification output to thegeneric generation process. The generic generation process may receivethe output from the classification process and fuse or combine thereceived output with a latest track output, creating “generic” tracksfrom explanations that are not explained by tracks. The genericgeneration process may apply a range view-based model to lidar points toperform or optimize a few tasks, for example, multi-class detection,multi-class trajectory prediction, lidar point segmentation, and classagnostic detection. In some implementations, the generic generationprocess may (1) take as input sensor-complete data (e.g.,camera/radar/lidar) and a map, (2) output generic tracks withinstantaneous velocity, and (3) handle multiple objects in z direction(e.g., object under overpass).

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may use asubstantial number of generic object labels and/or obscurant labels. Insome implementations, instead of classifying whether a return belongs toa real object, the remainder explainer system may classify whether it isobscurant. In some implementations, the remainder explainer system mayperform a removal of ground via a post processing, using the groundsurface from an atlas or a map. In some implementations, instead oftreating point counts and ray-tracing statistics as features, theremainder explainer system may perform filtering based on point countsand ray-tracing statistics as a post-processing step. One advantage ofthis post-processing step is to reduce false positives. Thepost-processing can be outside of a ML model (e.g., a pytorch model), orinside the ML model as a weight-free component (e.g., a component notlearned).

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system may predict realobjects or generic tracks directly by performing a ground subtraction aspart of the learning/inference process, which takes advantage of localsensor measurements, with optional map information as a priori. In someimplementations, post-processing can be performed to improve genericquality, e.g. using ray-tracing stats for rejecting false positive fromreflection. In some implementations, the remainder explainer system mayperform such post-processing as part of the learning/inference process.Post-processing can be subsumed or integrated into thelearning/inference process by providing similar features. In someimplementations, the remainder explainer system may directly transformand pack the output of the model into generic tracks, thereby easilyadjusting the learning objective to reflect what is needed for theplanning system. In some embodiments, assuming an output view includes aplurality of cells, the remainder explainer system can output a generictrack by performing prediction based on a model per cell,post-processing that buckets, clusters, and/or classifies the predictedcells, and generation of generic tracks by providing explanation. Whileexplanation by tracks, roadways and other outside sources can be part ofthe post-processing after a model learning/inference process, in someimplementations, the remainder explainer system can potentially providesuch explanation as an model input, so that the prediction can move evencloser to what the system publishes or reports (to the planning system,for example). In some implementations, the remainder explainer systemcan generate or produce a set of generic tracks that account forunexplained sensor data that are believed to be from real objects. Insome implementations, the output of a model (e.g., neural network) maybe is a point-wise prediction of objectness (e.g., object ornon-object), velocity, and/or attributes.

Implementations in the present disclosure have at least the followingadvantages and benefits.

First, implementations in the present disclosure can provide usefultechniques for efficiently explaining ground/obscurant withoutpredicting obscurant and using the prediction result to explain awaysensor data. The remainder explainer system instead labels out andpredict all tangible objects in the scene, so that the rest of thereturns then by-default may fall into the “don't care” category, withinwhich the system may optionally label out ground/obscurant explicitly asdesired. This method has the following advantages. In this manner, thelabeling process can be simplified because it can be very difficult toidentify all obscurants, while identifying all real objects isrelatively easier and more intuitive.

Second, implementations in the present disclosure can provide usefultechniques for handling ground with a learned model in a more robustmanner than using an atlas or a map. Ground elevation from the atlas ormap can be inaccurate due to a variety of error sources, e.g. mapresolution limit, map inaccuracy, localization inaccuracy, to name afew. Therefore, depending on ground elevation to exclude false positivesfrom ground point is not a robust solution, and the inaccuracies maybecome worse as range increases. To solve this problem, the remainderexplainer system according to some implementations can perform a groundsubtraction as part of the learning/inference process, which takesadvantage of local sensor measurements, with optional map information asa priori.

Third, post-processing can be simplified by performing post-processingas part of the learning/inference process. Post-processing can beperformed to improve generic quality, e.g. using ray-tracing stats forrejecting false positive from reflection. Post-processing can besubsumed or integrated into the learning/inference process by providingsimilar features.

Fourth, output of a learned model (e.g., ML model) can be easilypredicted and adjusted to be used by a planning system. For example, theoutput of the model can be almost directly transformed and packed intogeneric tracks, thereby easily adjusting the learning objective toreflect what is needed for the planning system.

I. System Environment for Autonomous Vehicles

FIG. 1 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a systemenvironment for autonomous vehicles according to some implementations.

Referring to FIG. 1 , an example autonomous vehicle 100 within which thevarious techniques disclosed herein may be implemented. The vehicle 100,for example, may include a powertrain 102 including a prime mover 104powered by an energy source 106 and capable of providing power to adrivetrain 108, as well as a control system 110 including a directioncontrol 112, a powertrain control 114, and a brake control 116. Thevehicle 100 may be implemented as any number of different types ofvehicles, including vehicles capable of transporting people and/orcargo, and capable of traveling in various environments, and it will beappreciated that the aforementioned components 102-116 can vary widelybased upon the type of vehicle within which these components areutilized.

For simplicity, the implementations discussed hereinafter will focus ona wheeled land vehicle such as a car, van, truck, bus, etc. In suchimplementations, the prime mover 104 may include one or more electricmotors and/or an internal combustion engine (among others). The energysource may include, for example, a fuel system (e.g., providinggasoline, diesel, hydrogen, etc.), a battery system, solar panels orother renewable energy source, and/or a fuel cell system. The drivetrain108 include wheels and/or tires along with a transmission and/or anyother mechanical drive components suitable for converting the output ofthe prime mover 104 into vehicular motion, as well as one or more brakesconfigured to controllably stop or slow the vehicle 100 and direction orsteering components suitable for controlling the trajectory of thevehicle 100 (e.g., a rack and pinion steering linkage enabling one ormore wheels of the vehicle 100 to pivot about a generally vertical axisto vary an angle of the rotational planes of the wheels relative to thelongitudinal axis of the vehicle). In some implementations, combinationsof powertrains and energy sources may be used (e.g., in the case ofelectric/gas hybrid vehicles), and in some instances multiple electricmotors (e.g., dedicated to individual wheels or axles) may be used as aprime mover.

The direction control 112 may include one or more actuators and/orsensors for controlling and receiving feedback from the direction orsteering components to enable the vehicle 100 to follow a desiredtrajectory. The powertrain control 114 may be configured to control theoutput of the powertrain 102, e.g., to control the output power of theprime mover 104, to control a gear of a transmission in the drivetrain108, etc., thereby controlling a speed and/or direction of the vehicle100. The brake control 116 may be configured to control one or morebrakes that slow or stop vehicle 100, e.g., disk or drum brakes coupledto the wheels of the vehicle.

Other vehicle types, including but not limited to off-road vehicles,all-terrain or tracked vehicles, ships, submarines, constructionequipment etc., will necessarily utilize different powertrains,drivetrains, energy sources, direction controls, powertrain controls andbrake controls. Moreover, in some implementations, some of thecomponents can be combined, e.g., where directional control of a vehicleis primarily handled by varying an output of one or more prime movers.Therefore, implementations disclosed herein are not limited to theparticular application of the herein-described techniques in anautonomous wheeled land vehicle.

In the illustrated implementation, full or semi-autonomous control overthe vehicle 100 is implemented in a vehicle control system 120, whichmay include one or more processors 122 and one or more memories 124,with each processor 122 configured to execute program code instructions126 stored in a memory 124. The processors(s) can include, for example,graphics processing unit(s) (“GPU(s)”)) and/or central processingunit(s) (“CPU(s)”).

Sensors 130 may include various sensors suitable for collectinginformation from a vehicle's surrounding environment for use incontrolling the operation of the vehicle. For example, sensors 130 caninclude radar sensor 134, lidar (Light Detection and Ranging) sensor136, a 3D positioning sensors 138, e.g., a satellite navigation systemsuch as GPS (Global Positioning System), GLONASS (GlobalnayaNavigazionnaya Sputnikovaya Sistema, or Global Navigation SatelliteSystem), BeiDou Navigation Satellite System (BDS), Galileo, Compass,etc. The 3D positioning sensors 138 can be used to determine thelocation of the vehicle on the Earth using satellite signals. Thesensors 130 can optionally include a camera 140 and/or an IMU (inertialmeasurement unit) 142. The camera 140 can be a monographic orstereographic camera and can record still and/or video images. The IMU142 can include multiple gyroscopes and accelerometers capable ofdetecting linear and rotational motion of the vehicle in threedirections. One or more encoders (not illustrated), such as wheelencoders may be used to monitor the rotation of one or more wheels ofvehicle 100.

The outputs of sensors 130 may be provided to a set of controlsubsystems 150, including, a localization subsystem 152, a planningsubsystem 156, a perception subsystem 154, and a control subsystem 158.The localization subsystem 152 is principally responsible for preciselydetermining the location and orientation (also sometimes referred to as“pose”) of the vehicle 100 within its surrounding environment, andgenerally within some frame of reference. The location of an autonomousvehicle can be compared with the location of an additional vehicle inthe same environment as part of generating labeled autonomous vehicledata. The perception subsystem 154 is principally responsible fordetecting, tracking, and/or identifying objects within the environmentsurrounding vehicle 100. A machine learning model in accordance withsome implementations can be utilized in tracking objects. The planningsubsystem 156 is principally responsible for planning a trajectory forvehicle 100 over some timeframe given a desired destination as well asthe static and moving objects within the environment. A machine learningmodel in accordance with some implementations can be utilized inplanning a vehicle trajectory. The control subsystem 158 is principallyresponsible for generating suitable control signals for controlling thevarious controls in the vehicle control system 120 in order to implementthe planned trajectory of the vehicle 100. Similarly, a machine learningmodel can be utilized to generate one or more signals to control anautonomous vehicle to implement the planned trajectory.

It will be appreciated that the collection of components illustrated inFIG. 1 for the vehicle control system 120 is a mere example. Individualsensors may be omitted in some implementations. Additionally oralternatively, in some implementations, multiple sensors of typesillustrated in FIG. 1 may be used for redundancy and/or to coverdifferent regions around a vehicle, and other types of sensors may beused. Likewise, different types and/or combinations of controlsubsystems may be used in other implementations. Further, whilesubsystems 152-158 are illustrated as being separate from processor 122and memory 124, it will be appreciated that in some implementations,some or all of the functionality of a subsystem 152-158 may beimplemented with program code instructions 126 resident in one or morememories 124 and executed by one or more processors 122, and that thesesubsystems 152-158 may in some instances be implemented using the sameprocessor(s) and/or memory. Subsystems may be implemented at least inpart using various dedicated circuit logic, various processors, variousfield programmable gate arrays (“FPGA”), various application-specificintegrated circuits (“ASIC”), various real time controllers, and thelike, as noted above, multiple subsystems may utilize circuitry,processors, sensors, and/or other components. Further, the variouscomponents in the vehicle control system 120 may be networked in variousmanners.

In some implementations, the vehicle 100 may also include a secondaryvehicle control system (not illustrated), which may be used as aredundant or backup control system for the vehicle 100. In someimplementations, the secondary vehicle control system may be capable offully operating the autonomous vehicle 100 in the event of an adverseevent in the vehicle control system 120, while in other implementations,the secondary vehicle control system may only have limitedfunctionality, e.g., to perform a controlled stop of the vehicle 100 inresponse to an adverse event detected in the primary vehicle controlsystem 120. In still other implementations, the secondary vehiclecontrol system may be omitted.

In general, an innumerable number of different architectures, includingvarious combinations of software, hardware, circuit logic, sensors,networks, etc. may be used to implement the various componentsillustrated in FIG. 1 . Each processor may be implemented, for example,as a microprocessor and each memory may represent the random accessmemory (“RAM”) devices comprising a main storage, as well as anysupplemental levels of memory, e.g., cache memories, non-volatile orbackup memories (e.g., programmable or flash memories), read-onlymemories, etc. In addition, each memory may be considered to includememory storage physically located elsewhere in the vehicle 100, e.g.,any cache memory in a processor, as well as any storage capacity used asa virtual memory, e.g., as stored on a mass storage device or anothercomputer controller. One or more processors illustrated in FIG. 1 , orentirely separate processors, may be used to implement additionalfunctionality in the vehicle 100 outside of the purposes of autonomouscontrol, e.g., to control entertainment systems, to operate doors,lights, convenience features, etc.

In addition, for additional storage, the vehicle 100 may include one ormore mass storage devices, e.g., a removable disk drive, a hard diskdrive, a direct access storage device (“DASD”), an optical drive (e.g.,a CD drive, a DVD drive, etc.), a solid state storage drive (“SSD”),network attached storage, a storage area network, and/or a tape drive,among others.

Furthermore, the vehicle 100 may include a user interface 164 to enablevehicle 100 to receive a number of inputs from and generate outputs fora passenger or an operator, e.g., one or more displays, touchscreens,voice and/or gesture interfaces, buttons and other tactile controls,etc. Otherwise, input from a passenger or an operator may be receivedvia another computer or electronic device, e.g., via an app on a mobiledevice or via a web interface.

Moreover, the vehicle 100 may include one or more network interfaces,e.g., network interface 162, suitable for communicating with one or morenetworks 170 (e.g., a Local Area Network (“LAN”), a wide area network(“WAN”), a wireless network, and/or the Internet, among others) topermit the communication of information with other computers andelectronic device, including, for example, a central service, such as acloud service, from which the vehicle 100 receives environmental andother data for use in autonomous control thereof. In manyimplementations, data collected by the one or more sensors 130 can beuploaded to a computing system 172 via the network 170 for additionalprocessing. In some implementations, a time stamp can be added to eachinstance of vehicle data prior to uploading. Additional processing ofautonomous vehicle data by computing system 172 in accordance with manyimplementations is described with respect to FIG. 2 , FIG. 3 and FIG. 4.

Each processor illustrated in FIG. 1 , as well as various additionalcontrollers and subsystems disclosed herein, generally operates underthe control of an operating system and executes or otherwise relies uponvarious computer software applications, components, programs, objects,modules, data structures, etc., as will be described in greater detailbelow. Moreover, various applications, components, programs, objects,modules, etc. may also execute on one or more processors in anothercomputer coupled to vehicle 100 via network 170, e.g., in a distributed,cloud-based, or client-server computing environment, whereby theprocessing required to implement the functions of a computer program maybe allocated to multiple computers and/or services over a network.

In general, the routines executed to implement the variousimplementations described herein, whether implemented as part of anoperating system or a specific application, component, program, object,module or sequence of instructions, or even a subset thereof, will bereferred to herein as “program code”. Program code typically comprisesone or more instructions that are resident at various times in variousmemory and storage devices, and that, when read and executed by one ormore processors, perform the steps necessary to execute steps orelements embodying the various aspects of the present disclosure.Moreover, while implementations have and hereinafter will be describedin the context of fully functioning computers and systems, it will beappreciated that the various implementations described herein arecapable of being distributed as a program product in a variety of forms,and that implementations can be implemented regardless of the particulartype of computer readable media used to actually carry out thedistribution.

Examples of computer readable media include tangible, non-transitorymedia such as volatile and non-volatile memory devices, floppy and otherremovable disks, solid state drives, hard disk drives, magnetic tape,and optical disks (e.g., CD-ROMs, DVDs, etc.) among others.

In addition, various program code described hereinafter may beidentified based upon the application within which it is implemented ina specific implementation. However, it should be appreciated that anyparticular program nomenclature that follows is used merely forconvenience, and thus the present disclosure should not be limited touse solely in any specific application identified and/or implied by suchnomenclature. Furthermore, given the typically endless number of mannersin which computer programs may be organized into routines, procedures,methods, modules, objects, and the like, as well as the various mannersin which program functionality may be allocated among various softwarelayers that are resident within a typical computer (e.g., operatingsystems, libraries, API's, applications, applets, etc.), it should beappreciated that the present disclosure is not limited to the specificorganization and allocation of program functionality described herein.

The environment illustrated in FIG. 1 is not intended to limitimplementations disclosed herein. Indeed, other alternative hardwareand/or software environments may be used without departing from thescope of implementations disclosed herein.

II. Computing Systems for Processing Autonomous Vehicle Data

FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a computing systemfor training a machine learning model such as a neural network modelaccording to some implementations.

The computing system 172 can receive time stamped vehicle observations(i.e., a collection of vehicle data and/or environmental data collectedby one or more autonomous vehicle(s) as well as one or morenon-autonomous vehicle(s)) via the network 170 (see FIG. 1 ). In someimplementations, the computing system 172 may include a temporalcorrelation engine 202, a location engine 204, a labeling engine 206, aneural network engine 210, a training engine 214, and a traininginstance engine 218. The temporal correlation engine 202, locationengine 204, labeling engine 206, neural network engine 210, trainingengine 214, and training instance engine 218 are example components inwhich techniques described herein may be implemented and/or with whichsystems, components, and techniques described herein may interface. Theoperations performed by one or more engines 202, 204, 206, 210, 214, 218of FIG. 2 may be distributed across multiple computing systems. In someimplementations, one or more aspects of engines 202, 204, 206, 210, 214,218 may be combined into a single system and/or one or more aspects maybe implemented by the computing system 172. For example, in some ofthose implementations, aspects of the temporal correlation engine 202may be combined with aspects of the labeling engine 206. Engines inaccordance with many implementations may each be implemented in one ormore computing devices that communication, for example, through acommunication network. A communication network may include a wide areanetwork such as the Internet, one or more local area networks (“LAN”s)such as Wi-Fi LANs, mesh networks, etc., and one or more bus subsystems.A communication network may optionally utilize one or more standardcommunication technologies, protocols, and/or inter-processcommunication techniques.

The computing system 172 can perform a variety of processing of onvehicle data 208. In some implementations, the vehicle data 208 includestime stamped autonomous vehicle data (as described herein with respectto FIG. 1 ). The temporal correlation engine 202 can (if necessary)synchronize time stamps between sets of data collected by separatevehicles collecting data in the same environment. For example, while twovehicles were collecting data in an environment simultaneously, the timestamps appended to the data from one vehicle may not correspond to thetime stamps to the data collected from another vehicle. In someimplementations, time stamps in data collected by one vehicle can beshifted to correspond to time stamps in data collected by anothervehicle.

The location engine 204 can determine the proximity of vehicles withinthe environment (often at each time stamp) from the vehicle data 208. Insome implementations, the co-presence of vehicles can be determinedusing one or more proximity sensors within a vehicle. In someimplementations, signals from proximity sensors can indicate a widevariety of ranges including: not in range, within one meter, within fivemeters, within ten meters, within fifty meters, within one hundredmeters, within two hundred meters, etc. In some implementations, onlyvehicle data where vehicles are within a threshold level of proximitymay be further processed (e.g., only data from vehicles within a 250meter range may be additionally processed).

Additionally or alternatively, vehicles can move in and out of athreshold range of proximity as they maneuver in the environment. Forexample, only data at time stamps where vehicles are in proximity rangecan be additionally processed. In some implementations, portions ofvehicle data where vehicles are not in proximity can be discarded.

The location engine 204 can additionally or alternatively determinevehicle locations using vehicle data 208 along with high-definition mapsbuilt with sensory data, for example. In some implementations, 3Dpositioning sensor data, such as a position provided by a GPS system canlocalize vehicles within an environment. In other implementations,common landmarks can be used to localize the position of vehicles in anenvironment. Common landmarks can include a variety of objects includingstationary objects such as buildings, street signs, stop signs, trafficlights, mailboxes, trees, bushes, sections of a fence, etc. The distanceof an autonomous vehicle to the common landmark (e.g., using lidar data)can be determined from autonomous vehicle data. Similarly, the distanceof an additional vehicle to the common landmark can be determined fromthe additional vehicle. A distance between the autonomous vehicle andthe additional vehicle can be calculated at a specific time stamp usingthe distance of each vehicle to the common landmark. For example, acommon landmark such as a stop sign can be captured in autonomousvehicle data as well as in non-autonomous vehicle data (which may becollected using, for example, autonomous vehicle sensor(s) mounted on anon-autonomous vehicle). Data collected by corresponding vehicle lidarunits can determine a distance from each vehicle to the stop sign at thesame time stamp. The distance between the autonomous vehicle and thenon-autonomous vehicle can be calculated using the distance of eachvehicle to the stop sign. Additionally or alternatively, the additionalvehicle can determine its location in a map using a 3D reference frame(such as an earth-centered, earth-fixed reference frame). In someimplementations, an autonomous vehicle can determine its location on thesame map, with respect to the same reference frame, and/or one or moreadditional methods of determining its location with respect to the samemap as the additional vehicle.

The labeling engine 206 can generate labels (in some implementationsautomatically generate labels) for autonomous vehicle data using vehicledata collected from one or more additional vehicles. In someimplementations, the computing system 172 can determine whether twovehicles are co-present in an environment using the location engine 204.In some implementations, the labeling engine 206 can determine instancesof autonomous vehicle data which only captures a single additionalvehicle co-present in the environment (i.e., when the autonomous vehicleis known to be within a proximity range of an additional vehicle, andonly one vehicle is captured in the autonomous vehicle data, generallythe additional vehicle will be the vehicle captured in the autonomousvehicle data). In some implementations, the labeling engine 206 candetermine instances of autonomous vehicle data which captures additionalnon-vehicle objects co-present with the current vehicle in theenvironment. Data collected from the additional vehicle can be mapped tothe location of the additional vehicle in the instance of autonomousvehicle data at a common time stamp. For example, a brake light signalof a non-autonomous vehicle (equipped with autonomous vehicle sensors)can be collected via a controller area network (CAN) bus and timestamped by a computing device of the non-autonomous vehicle. A labelindicating the status of the brake lights of the non-autonomous vehiclecan be mapped to the position where the non-autonomous vehicle iscaptured in autonomous vehicle data to automatically generate a brakelight label for the non-autonomous vehicle at the corresponding timestamp. Additionally or alternatively, additional vehicle dataidentifying the non-autonomous vehicle, such as vehicle dimensions, canbe used to determine a precise bounding box around the non-autonomousvehicle in the autonomous vehicle observations. In otherimplementations, the labeling engine 206 can utilize locations of twovehicles determined by location engine 204 (e.g., locations determinedusing GPS data collected from each vehicle and/or by localizing eachvehicle using a common landmark(s) in the environment).

The neural network engine 210 can train a neural network model 212. Theneural network model 212, in accordance with some implementations, caninclude a layer and/or layers of memory units where memory units eachhave corresponding weights. A variety of neural network models can beutilized including feed forward neural networks, convolutional neuralnetworks, recurrent neural networks, radial basis functions, otherneural network models, as well as combinations of several neuralnetworks. Additionally or alternatively, the neural network model 212can represent a variety of machine learning techniques in addition toneural networks such as support vector machines, decision trees,Bayesian networks, other machine learning techniques, and/orcombinations of machine learning techniques. Training the neural networkmodel 212 in accordance with some implementations described herein canutilize the neural network engine 210, training engine 214, and traininginstance engine 218. Neural network models can be trained for a varietyof autonomous vehicle tasks including determining a target autonomousvehicle location, generating one or more signals to control anautonomous vehicle, tracking or identifying objects within theenvironment of an autonomous vehicle, etc. For example, a neural networkmodel can be trained to identify traffic lights in the environment withan autonomous vehicle. As a further example, a neural network model canbe trained to predict the make and model of other vehicles in theenvironment with an autonomous vehicle. In many implementations, neuralnetwork models can be trained to perform a single task. In otherimplementations, neural network models can be trained to performmultiple tasks.

The training instance engine 218 can generate training instances totrain the neural network model. A training instance can include, forexample, an instance of autonomous vehicle data where the autonomousvehicle can detect an additional vehicle using one or more sensors and alabel corresponding to data collected from the additional vehicle. Thetraining engine 214 may apply a training instance as input to neuralnetwork model 212. In some implementations, the neural network model 212can be trained using at least one of supervised learning, unsupervisedlearning, or semi-supervised learning. Additionally or alternatively,neural network models in accordance with some implementations can bedeep learning networks including recurrent neural networks,convolutional neural networks (CNN), networks that are a combination ofmultiple networks, etc. For example, the training engine 214 cangenerate a predicted neural network model output by applying traininginput to the neural network model 212. Additionally or alternatively,the training engine 214 can compare the predicted neural network modeloutput with a neural network model known output from the traininginstance and, using the comparison, update one or more weights in theneural network model 212. In some implementations, one or more weightsmay be updated by backpropagating the difference over the entire neuralnetwork model 212.

FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a computing systemfor testing a trained neural network model according to someimplementations. The computing system 172, temporal correlation engine202, location engine 204, labeling engine 206, and vehicle data 208 aredescribed in the foregoing sections with respect to FIG. 2 . The neuralnetwork engine 212, testing engine 314, and testing instance engine 318in accordance with some implementations can be utilized to generatetesting instances for autonomous vehicle data including a labelcorresponding to an additional vehicle or a non-vehicle object presentin the autonomous vehicle data, as well as to test a trained (orlearned) neural network model 312. In some implementations, the trainedneural network model 312 can generate a predicted output for a singleautonomous vehicle task. In other implementations, the trained neuralnetwork model 312 can generate a predicted output for multipleautonomous vehicle tasks. Testing instance engine 314 can generatetesting instances 316 using labeled autonomous vehicle data collectedfrom an autonomous vehicle and an additional vehicle (or a non-vehicleobject), performing the specific autonomous vehicle task the neuralnetwork model 312 is trained for.

A testing instance, for example, can include an instance of autonomousvehicle data where an additional vehicle (or a non-vehicle object) isdetected by one or more sensors of the autonomous vehicle, and a labelcorresponding to data collected by the additional vehicle. The testingengine 314 can apply a testing instance as input to the neural networkmodel 312. A predicted output generated by applying a testing instanceto the neural network model 312 can be compared with a known output forthe testing instance (i.e., a label generated by the labeling engine206) to update an accuracy value (e.g., an accuracy percentage) for theneural network model.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a computing systemaccording to some implementations.

Referring to FIG. 4 , the illustrated example computing system 172includes one or more processors 410 in communication, via acommunication system 440 (e.g., bus), with memory 460, at least onenetwork interface controller 430 with network interface port forconnection to a network (not shown), and other components, e.g., aninput/output (“I/O”) components interface 450 connecting to a display(not illustrated) and an input device (not illustrated). Generally, theprocessor(s) 410 will execute instructions (or computer programs)received from memory. The processor(s) 410 illustrated incorporate, orare directly connected to, cache memory 420. In some instances,instructions are read from memory 460 into the cache memory 420 andexecuted by the processor(s) 410 from the cache memory 420.

In more detail, the processor(s) 410 may be any logic circuitry thatprocesses instructions, e.g., instructions fetched from the memory 460or cache 420. In some implementations, the processor(s) 410 aremicroprocessor units or special purpose processors. The computing device400 may be based on any processor, or set of processors, capable ofoperating as described herein. The processor(s) 410 may be single coreor multi-core processor(s). The processor(s) 410 may be multipledistinct processors.

The memory 460 may be any device suitable for storing computer readabledata. The memory 460 may be a device with fixed storage or a device forreading removable storage media. Examples include all forms ofnon-volatile memory, media and memory devices, semiconductor memorydevices (e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, SDRAM, and flash memory devices), magneticdisks, magneto optical disks, and optical discs (e.g., CD ROM, DVD-ROM,or Blu-Ray® discs). A computing system 172 may have any number of memorydevices as the memory 460.

The cache memory 420 is generally a form of computer memory placed inclose proximity to the processor(s) 410 for fast read times. In someimplementations, the cache memory 420 is part of, or on the same chipas, the processor(s) 410. In some implementations, there are multiplelevels of cache 420, e.g., L2 and L3 cache layers.

The network interface controller 430 manages data exchanges via thenetwork interface (sometimes referred to as network interface ports).The network interface controller 430 handles the physical and data linklayers of the OSI model for network communication. In someimplementations, some of the network interface controller's tasks arehandled by one or more of the processor(s) 410. In some implementations,the network interface controller 430 is part of a processor 410. In someimplementations, a computing system 172 has multiple network interfacescontrolled by a single controller 430. In some implementations, acomputing system 172 has multiple network interface controllers 430. Insome implementations, each network interface is a connection point for aphysical network link (e.g., a cat-5 Ethernet link). In someimplementations, the network interface controller 430 supports wirelessnetwork connections and an interface port is a wireless (e.g., radio)receiver/transmitter (e.g., for any of the IEEE 802.11 protocols, nearfield communication “NFC”, Bluetooth, ANT, or any other wirelessprotocol). In some implementations, the network interface controller 430implements one or more network protocols such as Ethernet. Generally, acomputing device 172 exchanges data with other computing devices viaphysical or wireless links through a network interface. The networkinterface may link directly to another device or to another device viaan intermediary device, e.g., a network device such as a hub, a bridge,a switch, or a router, connecting the computing device 172 to a datanetwork such as the Internet.

The computing system 172 may include, or provide interfaces for, one ormore input or output (“I/O”) devices. Input devices include, withoutlimitation, keyboards, microphones, touch screens, foot pedals, sensors,MIDI devices, and pointing devices such as a mouse or trackball. Outputdevices include, without limitation, video displays, speakers,refreshable Braille terminal, lights, MIDI devices, and 2-D or 3-Dprinters.

Other components may include an I/O interface, external serial deviceports, and any additional co-processors. For example, a computing system172 may include an interface (e.g., a universal serial bus (USB)interface) for connecting input devices, output devices, or additionalmemory devices (e.g., portable flash drive or external media drive). Insome implementations, a computing device 172 includes an additionaldevice such as a co-processor, e.g., a math co-processor can assist theprocessor 410 with high precision or complex calculations.

III. System and Methods for Generating Information on Remainder ofMeasurement Using Sensor Data

FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a perceptionsubsystem according to an implementation of the present disclosure.

The perception subsystem 154 is responsible for detecting, classifying,and tracking actors and objects within the environment surrounding thevehicle 100 (see FIG. 1 ). In some implementations, the perceptionsubsystem 154 may include at least one of a remainder explainer 519, adetector 550 (or a plurality of detectors 550) and a tracker 510. Insome implementations, the perception subsystem 154 can include multipledetectors that receive sensor data from respective sensors.

The detector 550 is principally responsible for determining and/ordetecting objects within the environment surrounding the vehicle basedon sensor data received from sensors. In some implementations, thedetector 550 may receive data from sensors (e.g., LIDAR data from thelidar sensor 136 or a plurality of lidar sensors 136, radar data fromthe radar sensor 134 or a plurality of radar sensors 134) and processthe received sensor data to determine and/or detect objects. In someimplementations, the detector 550 may be one or more detectorscorresponding to respective different kinds of sensors, or a singledetector receiving data from different kinds of sensors, or multipledetectors each receiving data from different kinds of sensors. In someimplementations, the detector 550 may be configured to classify anobject into a particular category based on sensor data received from theone or more sensors (e.g., using one or more machine learning models toclassify an object into a particular category). In some implementations,the detector 550 may determine features related to an object based onsensor data. For example, the detector 550 can determine a size, ashape, a velocity, or a moving direction of an object. In someimplementations, the detector 550 may output the determinedclassification or the determined features of an object to be input tothe tracker 510.

In some implementations, output from the detector 550 may include datarelating to detections and/or data relating to predictions. Detectionsdata may include 3 dimensional (3D) oriented boxes for detected objects(e.g., pedestrians, cyclists, vehicles, etc.). In some implementations,motorcyclists may be labeled as vehicles. In some implementations, thedetector 550 may perform detections inside a spatial (or raster) grid ofpredetermined dimensions which may contain a plurality of cells.Predictions data may include 2 dimensional (2D) spatial grids containinginformation about objects for which the detector does not obtainsufficient or complete shape representations or motion models. The gridsmay contain at least one of an obscurant grid, a velocity grid or avegetation grid. The obscurant grid may represent a probability thateach cell is an obscurant (e.g., rain, snow, fog, smoke, exhaust, etc.).The velocity grid may represent a ballistic 2D velocity vectorindicating how objects contained in each cell are moving. The vegetationgrid may represent a probability that each cell is vegetation. In someimplementations, the velocity grid and the vegetation grid may not yetbe predicted by the detector. In some implementations, all grids maycontain information relating to sensor data contained in each cell(e.g., min/max z values, timestamps, measured from a lidar sensor). Insome implementations, the contents of a grid may be used by a sensorbuffer to remove spurious lidar data (e.g., obscurant grid), taggenerics (e.g., moving matter apart from tracked objects) with velocityvalues (e.g., velocity grid), or inform a static raster based on thecontents of a grid (e.g., vegetation grid).

The tracker 510 is principally responsible for tracking objects (e.g.,objects 530) within the environment surrounding the vehicle 100. In someimplementations, the tracker 510 may be configured to associateconsecutive sensor observations (e.g., radar points in cloud pointsmeasured by a radar sensor) of an object and generate a track based onthe sensor observations.

In some implementations, the tracker 510 may include a track manager 512which initiates and/or updates a track associated with the object basedon changes of the target objects. In some implementations, the tracker510 may include a radar tracker 517, while in some implementations theradar tracker 517 may be separate from the tracker 510. In someimplementations, where the radar measurement data are encoded in acertain format, the radar tracker 517 can decode and convert radarmeasurement data (e.g., radar points received from the radar sensor 134or a plurality of radar sensors 134) into a different format. Forexample, the radar tracker 517 can add certain channels to the format ofthe radar measurement data such that additional data can be associatedwith the additional channels that are included in the different format.In some implementations, the radar tracker 517 determines tracks ofdifferent objects (e.g., present position and velocity of differentobjects), and outputs radar points associated with tracks of differentobjects to be input to the track manager 512. In some implementations,in response to a request for up-to-date radar measurement data from thetrack manager 512, the radar tracker 517 may be configured to outputtrack data based on radar points of up-to-date radar measurements, to beinput to the track manager 512. In some implementations, the radartracker 517 may be configured to send updates 517 to the track manager512 to inform a new position and a range rate of a track, which can beintegrated in the track manager 512 or the tracker 510.

In some implementations, the tracker 510 may include a detector tracker516 which receives detection data from the detector 550 and outputs dataof a track of the newly detected object (e.g., position and velocitydata) to be input to the track manager 512. In some implementations, thedetector tracker 516 may be separate from the tracker 510. In someimplementations, the detector tracker 516 may associate detections withexisting tracks to update position, velocity and extents, for example,which are integrated in the track manager 512 or the tracker 510.

In some implementations, the tracker 510 may include a lidar tracker 515which converts lidar measurement data (e.g., reflected laser measured bythe lidar sensor 136 or a plurality of lidar sensors 136) to points or asurface in a 3D environment, and output the points or surface to beinput to the track manager 512. In some implementations, the lidartracker 515 may be separate from the tracker 510. In someimplementations, the lidar tracker 515 may send updates 525 to the trackmanager 512 to inform visibility information (via ray tracing, forexample) on if a track really exists in the world. For example, usingvisibility information such as the ray hits/misses, the tracker 510 mayremove tracks that are not supported by lidar data (e.g., remove tracksspawned from radar returns on overpasses). The tracker 510 may include acamera tracker 518 which converts images captured by a camera (e.g., thecamera 140 or a plurality of cameras 140) to points or a surface in a 3Denvironment, and output the points or surface to be input to the trackmanager 512. In some implementations, the camera tracker 518 may beseparate from the tracker 510.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system 519 whichreceives (1) track data 529 of an object from the track manager 512, (2)new measurement data from at least one sensor (e.g., sensors 134, 136,140), and/or (3) map data 135 from a map or atlas. The remainderexplainer system 519 may use a machine learning model (e.g., trainingthe model 212 by the training engine 214 in FIG. 2 ) that partitionssensor data into “object” (e.g., vehicles, pedestrians and cyclists) and“obscurant” (something motion-planning should ignore). The remainderexplainer system 519 may explain the sensor measurements that are notyet explained by other components of the perception system (e.g.,detectors 550 or trackers 512, 515, 516, 517, 518). In someimplementations, instead of predicting obscurants with labels and usingthe prediction results to explain away sensor data, the remainderexplainer system 519 may predict the opposite, e.g., what is out therein the world that needs to be paid attention to. For example, theremainder explainer system 519 may label out all tangible objects in thescene, with some attributes tagged for the objects. The rest of thereturns then, by-default, may fall into the “don't care” category,within which the system may optionally label out ground/obscurantexplicitly as desired. In some implementation, the remainder explainersystem 519 may track “generics” as generic tracks and output generictracks 529 to the track manager 512 so that a vehicle is controlledbased on the generic tracks. In some implementations, generics mayinclude FODs (Foreign Objects Or Debris) classes not handled by atracker: e.g., animals, debris, balls, barrier, etc.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating an example of a remainderexplainer system according to an implementation of the presentdisclosure.

In some implementations, a remainder explainer system 600 may include(1) a classifier 650 configured to perform a process of classificationof measurement data 620 and (2) an generic generator 670 configured toperform a process of generating generic tracks as generic output 690.The remainder explainer system 600 may receive, as input, measurementdata 620, track data 630, and/or map data 640. The measurement data 620may be data received from sensors (e.g., lidar 136, radar 134, camera140 shown in FIG. 5 ). In some implementations, the measurement data 620may represent one of a range view or a bird's eye view relative to anautonomous vehicle (e.g., vehicle 100 in FIG. 1 ). The map data may bedata from a map or atlas (e.g., data 135 in FIG. 5 ). The generic output690 (and/or potential generics 674) may be (1) an output view includinga plurality of cells or (2) 3-D voxel map.

In some implementations, the classifier 650 may include (1) a featuregenerator 652 configured to generate a set of features and (2) one ormore ML models (e.g., neural networks) 654 configured to classify themeasurement data into “object” or “obscurant” based on the set offeatures. In some implementations, the set of features may include rangeimage features (e.g., features relating to a threshold range ofproximity), point-wise features (e.g., features relating to objects suchas vehicle, cyclist, pedestrian, etc., or known obscurants such as rain,snow, fog, smoke, exhaust, etc.), and/or filtering features (e.g.,features relating to ground information, point counts, and ray-tracingstatistics). In some implementations, the classifier 650 may outputclassifications or classification data 656 and velocity vectors 658.

In some implementations, instead of predicting obscurants with labelsand using the prediction result to explain away sensor data, theclassifier 650 may label out and predict the opposite, e.g., what is outthere in the world that needs to be paid attention to. For example, theclassifier 650 may label out all tangible objects in the scene (e.g.,vehicle, passenger, cyclist, etc.), with some attributes tagged for theobjects. The rest of the returns then by-default may fall into the“don't care” or “unexplained” category, within which the classifier 650may optionally label out ground/obscurant explicitly as desired. Forexample, the classifier 650 may further label out known obscurants suchas rain, snow, fog, smoke, exhaust so that the rest of the returns willfall into “don't care” or “unexplained” category as an output of theclassifier.

In some implementations, the classifier 650 may use a labelling schemethat only considers or detects generic objects on-road, e.g., a schemethat only labels out generic objects within a certain distance from theroad region boundary, and the classifier 650 may perform inference onlyon such regions as well. Using the labelling scheme, for static objects,the classifier 650 may only consider or detect those on-road because aplanning system can treat the road region boundary as something theautonomous vehicle (AV) should never go beyond, so reporting staticobjects beyond the road region boundary will not change AV behaviors. Insome implementations, the classifier 650 can provide information onoff-road static objects with a precision lower than that of on-roadobjects (e.g. it may report false positive static objects) because AVbehaviors will not be affected.

In some implementations, the classifications or classification data 656output from the classifier 650 may include unexplained sensor data (aspotential generics) which are not classified as known objects (e.g.,vehicle, cyclist, pedestrian) or known obscurants (e.g., rain, snow,fog, smoke, exhaust). In some implementations, the classifications orclassification data 656 output from the classifier 650 may includesensor data which are classified as known objects (e.g., vehicle,cyclist, pedestrian) as well as unexplained sensor data.

In some implementations, the velocity vectors 658 output from theclassifier 650 may be velocity vectors of the potential generics. Insome implementations, the classifier 650 may be configured to predictvelocity or location of a potential generic. In some implementations,the classifier 650 may predict a velocity vector of a potential genericby (1) taking or inputting feature vectors (e.g., feature vectorsextracted from an “unexplained” output of the classifier 650) at acurrent time and a previous time, (2) applying techniques of vision ormachine learning (e.g., neural network), and (3) outputting a predictionresult as velocity vectors.

The generic generator 670 may take inputs of classification 656 and avelocity vector 658 from the classifier 650, and generate (1) an outputview including a plurality of cells or (2) 3-D voxel map (e.g., voxel of25 cm). In some implementations, the generic generator 670 may output arasterized view and/or a grid view. In some implementations, the genericgenerator 670 may (1) generate an output view (e.g., a rasterized viewor 3-D voxel map), (2) take or input a location of the output view,e.g., an (x, y, z) coordinate, and (3) check with a result of theclassification process on that location. If the location is alreadyexplained (e.g., object or known obscurant exists) by the classificationprocess, the generic generator 670 may throw away (discard or remove ordelete or ignore) the output view of that location. If the location isunexplained, the generic generator 670 may aggregate the classificationdata 656 (e.g., point-by-point sensor data) and velocity vectors 658 onthe corresponding location into the output view. In someimplementations, the generic generator 670 may perform the aggregationby averaging subsets of the classification data 656 and the velocityvectors 658 (e.g., subsets corresponding to a particular location).

Generic tracks may have instantaneous dynamics, but no cycle to cycleconsistency.

In some implementations, the classifier 650 may house or store arange-view model that classifies points into object(s) or obscurant(s).In some implementations, after performing a classification or aclustering (e.g., some naive clustering), the classifier 650 may send(or ship) the clustering or classification output to the genericgenerator 670. The generic generator 670 may receive the output (e.g.,unexplained sensor data) from the classification process and fuse orcombine the received output with a latest track output, creating“generic” tracks from explanations that are not explained by tracks. Thegeneric generator 670 may apply a range view-based model to lidar pointsto perform or optimize a few tasks, for example, multi-class detection,multi-class trajectory prediction, lidar point segmentation, and classagnostic detection. In some implementations, the generic generator 670may (1) take as inputs sensor-complete data (e.g., camera/radar/lidar)and a map, (2) output generic tracks with instantaneous velocity, and(3) handle multiple objects in z direction (e.g., object underoverpass). For example, the generic generator 670 may have an outputrate of 20 Hz which matches a track output frequency. The size ofsmallest detected objects may be 20 cm if the output range is less than150 m, and 50 cm if the output range is less than 300 m. The genericgenerator 670 can cover required ranges (e.g., 150 m or 300 m), reportobjects (as generics) from road including jersey barriers, and/or reportmoving objects that may enter the road, in the form of generic tracks.

The generic generator 670 may include a track filter 677 and/or a mapfilter 678 to perform post-processing to reduce false positives. Thetrack filter 677 may explain out or filter out or de-duplicate potentialgeneric tracks based on the track data 630. For example, the trackfilter 677 may compare a potential generic track (e.g., a track based oneither unexplained sensor data and/or explained sensor data classifiedas known objects) to track data (e.g., track data from track manager 512in FIG. 5 ). In some implementations, the track filter 677 may compareproperties of sensor data of a potential generic track (e.g., locationinformation or velocity vector) to corresponding properties of trackdata 630 (e.g., track data from track manager 512 in FIG. 5 ). If thetrack data 630 can explain, based on a result of the comparison, apotential generic track or a portion thereof, the track filter 677 mayfilter out or remove or de-duplicate the explained potential generictrack or the explained portion.

The map filter 678 may explain out or filter out or de-duplicate thepotential generic tracks based on the map data 640 (e.g., road boundaryinformation). For example, the map filter 678 may compare a potentialgeneric track to map data (e.g., map data 135 in FIG. 5 ). If the mapdata 640 can explain, based on a result of the comparison, a potentialgeneric track or a portion thereof as a ground surface, the map filter678 may filter out or remove or de-duplicate the explained potentialgeneric track or the explained portion. In some implementations, thegeneric generator 670 may include other filters including (1) groundplane filter (e.g., filters with tilted ground plane with differentinclination angles, as well as types), (2) raytracing classificationfilter (e.g., classification by modeling light transport), (3) multipathclassification filter (e.g., classification by detecting multipath ghosttarget images), (4) lidar point erosion filter (e.g., removing pixels onobject boundaries), and/or (5) thresholding number of points. In someimplementations, the post-processing or filtering can be performedinside the ML model (e.g., classifier 650) as a weight-free component(e.g., a component not learned). In some implementations, thepost-processing or filtering can be performed inside the ML model as aweight-free component (e.g., a component not learned). In someimplementations, filtering by the map filter 678 may be performed priorto filtering by the track filter 677.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system 600 can onlyreport objects that can cause or receive “harm” in which “harm” isplatform agnostic. In some implementations, the remainder explainersystem 600 can classify sensor data (e.g., measurement data 620 in FIG.6 ) as corresponding to a vulnerable actor or non-vulnerable actor, andcan only report objects corresponding to the vulnerable actor. In someimplementations, the classifications or classification data 656 outputfrom the classifier 650 may include classifications corresponding to (1)object or non-object, (2) vulnerable or non-vulnerable, and/or (3)harmful or non-harmful. The remainder explainer system 600 can usereported object size to decide on “straddle ability.” In someimplementations, the remainder explainer system 600 can outputinformation in form of a static raster. The remainder explainer system600 can generate output in such a high precision to satisfy therequirement of the perception system which has low tolerance for falsepositives at highway speeds. For example, the remainder explainer system600 can not only filter out “obscurants”, but also provide reasonabledynamics estimates. The remainder explainer system 600 also can generateoutput with a high recall. For example, the remainder explainer system600 can report all objects that may cause “harm” and the perceptionsystem can use reported object size to decide “straddle ability.” Theremainder explainer system 600 also can generate output in a long range.For example, outputs can have a range of 160 m behind for merges, arange of 200 m ahead for stopping for any obstacle, or a range of 300 mahead for sufficient time to lane change.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system can haveengineered filters that are used in parallel with the machine learningmodel to determine object/non-object classifications. For example, theengineered filters may include erosion filter, multipath classificationfilter, ground plane filter, and/or number of point filter.

FIG. 7A is a diagram illustrating a distribution of different kinds offoreign objects or debris (FODs). FIG. 7B is a diagram illustrating aprecision/recall (PR) curve for different operating points of aremainder explainer system according to some implementations.

One concern in a remainder explainer system performing filtering in apost-processing step (e.g., track filter 677 or map filter 678 in FIG. 6)) is how the system can keep a high recall on generics. FIG. 7A showsthe distribution 710 of different kinds of FODs that AV needs to beaware of on the road. The distribution shown in FIG. 7A has a long tailof FODs that are rare events. The remainder explainer system may need asignificant amount of labels to cover these rare events.

FIG. 7B shows a precision/recall (PR) curve showing a trade-off betweenprecision and recall for different operating points of a remainderexplainer system. There are two types of existing metrics related to theremainder explainer system: (1) stuff metrics and (2) generic metrics.Stuff metrics can measure the performance of obscurant prediction andvelocity prediction, whereas generic metrics measures the overall recallof generics based on heuristic-based auto-generated labels. In theremainder explainer system, the output of a model and the publishedgenerics can be measured separately. The PR curve shown in FIG. 7B isobtained based on the stuff metrics.

After training a learning/inference model (e.g., neural network), anoperation point on the PR curve may be picked or chosen. For example, anoperation point with high recall and “acceptable” precision (e.g., point730 in FIG. 7B) may be chosen. A delta from the operation point to 100%recall (e.g., 750 in FIG. 7B) corresponds to an amount of falsenegatives. A delta from the operation point to 100% precision (e.g., 740in FIG. 7B) corresponds to an amount of false positives. As theoperation point approaches 100% recall, the remainder explainer systemwould report too many false positive generics which may stop AV fromoperating. On the other hand, as the operation point approaches 100%precision, the remainder explainer system would report too many falsenegative generics which may stop AV from explaining or predicting “real”generics. This is the trade-off that exists in all classificationschemes for the remainder explainer system.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system can keep pushingthe PR curve to the top right corner (e.g., an operation point 760 withthe same degree of recall and precision in FIG. 7B). But, one challengein using a learning/inference model (e.g., Artificial Neural Network(ANN)) is to prevent the worst case from happening. For example, AVshould “never” run into a wall. To prevent such false negatives fromhappening, an operation point with high recall and “acceptable”precision (e.g., point 730 in FIG. 7B) may be chosen. Such high recalland “acceptable” precision can be implemented by utilizing a set ofengineered algorithms plus obscurant prediction. To name a few, theengineered algorithms include ground plane filtering (e.g., filters withtilted ground plane with different inclination angles, as well astypes), raytracing classification (e.g., classification by modelinglight transport), multipath classification (e.g., classification bydetecting multipath ghost target images), lidar point erosion filter(e.g., removing pixels on object boundaries), and thresholding number ofpoints.

FIG. 8 is a flowchart illustrating an example method for generatinginformation on a remainder of measurements according to someimplementations.

In some implementations, the method may be performed by a vehiclecomputing system (e.g., the perception system 154, the remainderexplainer 519 in FIG. 5 , the remainder explainer system 600 in FIG. 6 )comprising one or more processors (e.g., processor 410 in FIG. 4 ) andone or more memories (e.g., memory 460 in FIG. 4 ) operably coupled withthe one or more processors.

In this example method, the process begins in operation 802 in which theremainder explainer system or the one or more processors thereof obtainssensor data (e.g., lidar data 136, radar data 134, camera data 140 inFIG. 5 ; measurement data 620 in FIG. 6 ) including a plurality ofsensor returns from an environment (see a perception sub-system in FIG.5 ) of an autonomous vehicle (e.g., vehicle 100 in FIG. 1 ). In someimplementations, the plurality of sensor returns may represent one of arange view or a bird's eye view relative to the autonomous vehicle.

In operation 804, the remainder explainer system or the one or moreprocessors thereof (e.g., feature generator 652 of classifier 650 inFIG. 6 ) may extract a first set of features from the sensor data. Insome implementations, the first set of features may include range imagefeatures (e.g., features relating to a threshold range of proximity),point-wise features (e.g., features relating to objects such as vehicle,cyclist, pedestrian, etc., or known obscurants such as rain, snow, fog,smoke, exhaust, etc.), and/or filtering features (e.g., featuresrelating to ground information, point counts, and ray-tracingstatistics).

In operation 806, the remainder explainer system or the one or moreprocessors thereof (e.g., classifier 650 in FIG. 6 ) may process thefirst set of features with a machine learning model (e.g., machinelearning model 654 in FIG. 6 ) to generate, for at least a subset of theplurality of sensor returns, a first output (e.g., classifications 656in FIG. 6 ) that classifies a respective sensor return as correspondingto an object or non-object and a second output (e.g., velocity vectors658 in FIG. 6 ) that indicates a property of the object. In someimplementations, the property of the object may include at least one ofpredicted velocity information (e.g., velocity vectors 658 in FIG. 6 )or predicted location information associated with the respective sensorreturn.

In some implementations, in processing the first set of features, theremainder explainer system or the one or more processors (e.g.,classifier 650 in FIG. 6 ) may be configured to generate, for at leastthe subset of the plurality of sensor returns, a third output (e.g.,classifications 656 in FIG. 6 ) that classifies the respective sensorreturn as corresponding to a vulnerable actor or non-vulnerable actor.

In operation 808, the remainder explainer system or the one or moreprocessors thereof (e.g., generic generator 670 or track filter 677 inFIG. 6 ) may compare the sensor returns classified as corresponding toobjects (e.g., potential generic tracks based on classifications 656 inFIG. 6 ) to a plurality of pre-classified objects (e.g., track data 630based on pre-classified objects in FIG. 6 ) to generate one or moregeneric object classifications (e.g., generating generic tracks based ongeneric object classifications).

In some implementations, in comparing the sensor returns, the remainderexplainer system or the one or more processors (e.g., track filter 677in FIG. 6 ) may be configured to determine that the respective sensorreturn does not correspond to any of the plurality of pre-classifiedobjects. In response to the determination, the one or more processorsmay be configured to classify the respective sensor return ascorresponding to a generic object. The generic object may be debris. Insome implementations, the generic object may be ground, animals, debris,balls, barrier, etc. Referring to FIG. 6 , if the track data 630 canexplain, based on a result of the comparison, a potential generic trackor a portion thereof, the track filter 677 may filter out or remove orde-duplicate the explained potential generic track or the explainedportion.

In some implementations, in comparing the sensor returns, the remainderexplainer system or the one or more processors (e.g., track filter 677in FIG. 6 ) may be configured to compare the property of the object tocorresponding properties of the plurality of pre-classified objects. Forexample, referring to FIG. 6 , the track filter 677 may compareproperties of sensor data of a potential generic track (e.g., locationinformation or velocity vector) to corresponding properties of trackdata 630 (e.g., track data from track manager 512 in FIG. 5 ).

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system or the one ormore processors (e.g., generic generator 670 in FIG. 6 ) may be furtherconfigured to prior to comparing the sensor returns, aggregate the firstand second outputs of the plurality of sensor returns into a pluralityof three dimensional (3-D) voxels. In the aggregating, the one or moreprocessors may be configured to average subsets of the first and secondoutputs of the plurality of sensor returns. For example, referring toFIG. 6 , if sensor data at a particular location is unexplained, thegeneric generator 670 may aggregate the classification data 656 (e.g.,point-by-point sensor data) and velocity vectors 658 on the particularlocation into an output view including a plurality of 3-D voxels. Insome implementations, the generic generator 670 may perform theaggregation by averaging subsets of the classification data 656 and thevelocity vectors 658 (e.g., subsets corresponding to the particularlocation).

In some implementations, the remainder explainer system or the one ormore processors (e.g., track filter 677 in FIG. 6 ) may be furtherconfigured to filter, prior to the comparing, the plurality of sensorreturns based at least in part on map data. In some implementations,filtering by the map filter 678 may be performed prior to filtering bythe track filter 677. The map data may include road boundaryinformation. In the filtering, the one or more processors may beconfigured to filter ground surface information. For example, referringto FIG. 6 , the map filter 678 may compare a potential generic trackwith map data (e.g., map data 135 in FIG. 5 ). If the map data 640 canexplain, based on a result of the comparison, a potential generic trackor a portion thereof as a ground surface, the map filter 678 may filterout or remove or de-duplicate the explained potential generic track orthe explained portion.

In operation 810, the remainder explainer system or the one or moreprocessors thereof (e.g., generic generator 670 in FIG. 6 ) may controlthe autonomous vehicle based at least in part on the one or more genericobject classifications (e.g., generic tracks based on generic objectclassifications). For example, referring to FIG. 6 , the genericgenerator 670 may provide generic tracks (which are generated based ongeneric object classifications) to a track manager (e.g., track manager512) to an autonomous vehicle control system (e.g., vehicle controlsystem 120 in FIG. 1 ) such that a vehicle is controlled based ongeneric tracks.

IV. Performance Issues Relating to Remainder Explainer System

In some implementations, the classification process and the genericgeneration process of a remainder explainer system may be twoindependent processes but may share models (e.g., ML models). Oneadvantage of independent processes is that if one process fails, theother process can operate thereby improving reliability and availabilityof the perception system. Another advantage of independent processes isthat such an implementation can give flexibility to either module interms of processing speed or frequency and that each module does nothave to be synchronized with the other module. For example, the genericgeneration process can run as fast as a tracker, while theclassification process can run slower. In this manner, the remainderexplainer system can immediately cover for a false negative from thetracker, without having to wait for a new run of the classificationprocess.

One challenge of a perception system is to satisfy publishing (orreporting) frequency and latency requirements, under the constraint ofcompute resources. In some implementations, a main classification systemand a remainder explainer system may be two independent processes, oneof which provides an input to the other. For example, the mainclassification system may provide an input to the remainder explainersystem, or vice versa. In some implementations, there are two callbacks(or call-after functions) corresponding the main explainer system andthe remainder explainer system. In some implementations, the callbackfor the main explainer system performs the classification of lidarpoints, triggered by new data coming in, while the callback for theremainder explainer system performs the explanation of lidar points andthe generation of generics, triggered by a new track bundle coming in.In some implementations, the two callbacks can run asynchronously as twoindependent threads. However, the publish/subscribe overhead can beexpensive due to the density of prediction.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer callback (or process)can satisfy several requirements: (1) publishing frequency, (2) latencyand/or (3) GPU availability. For example, a particular value ofpublishing frequency may be required as it is bounded by the perceptionprovider protocol. In other words, an explanation may need to beprovided according to the particular value of publishing frequency. Insome cases, the window of data for which explanation is provided shouldbe as low latency as possible, but stale data of up to a predeterminedlatency should be acceptable. To satisfy this publishing frequencyrequirement, the remainder explainer callback may maintain a buffer ofexplanations, and maintain the explanation with update/purge/etc. as newinference happens, explanation becomes stale, etc.

Latency may be lower bounded by a frequency of operating lidar's rollingshutter plus inference time of a model (e.g., neural network), under theassumption that per-sweep batch processing is performed. In someimplementations, the remainder explainer callback can reduce the latencywith stream processing, at the expense of heavier overall compute. Withstream processing, latency can be lower bounded by lidar packet latency(which is relatively very small) plus packet processing time (which alsocan be made very small). Under the nominal perception case, latency maybe less of a concern in the near-term as most generic objects arestatic. Eventually, improving latency will be an inherent piece ofimproving the performance as there will be moving generic objects andnominal track false negatives.

GPU availability of a predetermined percentage of time may be requiredas given the existence of other models or processes, a GPU will beavailable to the remainder explainer callback for the predeterminedpercentage of the time. The scheduling can be challenging depending onthe I/O pattern of other models sharing the GPU. For example, theremainder explainer callback may eagerly run inference on a slice oflidar points as they come in, but a tracker may have just kicked in andblocked for some amount of time. To make scheduling efficient, modelssharing a GPU may need to be running at comparable cadence. In someimplementations, two models sharing a GPU can run at comparable cadenceby both models performing batch processing at a predetermined frequency,or both models performing stream processing with a shared process queue.

In some implementations, GPU availability may be satisfied by setting anumber of GPU threads (e.g., gpu_thread_limit) for models or processesco-located to the same device to facilitate concurrent processing of theremainder explainer callback and other models on a GPU. This mayguarantee that any particular model or process will not take up more SMs(streaming multiprocessors) than the configured gpu_thread_limit, andthe rest of the available SMs can be utilized for other processes. Insome implementations, the gpu_thread_limit of a tracker can be set to apredetermined percentage (e.g., α %), so that (100-α)% is available foruse by the remainder explainer callback. In this manner, the remainderexplainer inference model will not be blocked by the tracker for itsentire inference cycle, so the remainder explainer inference model andthe tracker can run at different cadences more efficiently, therebyimproving the GPU utilization rate and achieving the target inferencefrequency with more compute headroom. In some implementations, there isno control over the scheduling of the processes, so that there is noguarantee of the behavior of the processes. For example, anotherinference process (by radar or camera) and the remainder explainercallback may be interleaved, so that they both run at a predeterminedfrequency and each takes up a predetermined amount of the inferencetime. However, there is no guarantee that the inference of the processeswill happen in an interleaved way.

In some implementations, the remainder explainer callback (or process)may perform the inference on CPU using a single instruction multipledata (SIMD) library, especially for heterogeneous network designs thatGPU does not have a strong edge over.

Considering all factors, in some implementations, the main explainercall back and the remainder explainer call back may be run in twoindependent threads. In some implementations, the whole explainer modulecan be split into two modules that can be run in two independentthreads. In some implementations, inter-process communication (IPC) maybe performed between two threads using a ring buffer instead of passinga protocol buffer, especially if large message size is a concern. Insome implementations, because a ring buffer is not logged, to runoffline a producer of a ring buffer may be run with a consumer. In someimplementations, gpu_thread_limit can be used to divide the availabilityof a GPU, so that any single model or process will not block othermodels or processes from processing. Batch processing of lidar pointsmay be performed at a predetermined frequency. Computation headroom canbe confirmed by experiments with configuration of gpu_thread_limit. Theremainder explainer callback (or process) can be run as tracks come inon the latest inference result.

The previous description is provided to enable any person skilled in theart to practice the various aspects described herein. Variousmodifications to these aspects will be readily apparent to those skilledin the art, and the generic principles defined herein may be applied toother aspects. Thus, the claims are not intended to be limited to theaspects shown herein, but is to be accorded the full scope consistentwith the language claims, wherein reference to an element in thesingular is not intended to mean “one and only one” unless specificallyso stated, but rather “one or more.” Unless specifically statedotherwise, the term “some” refers to one or more. All structural andfunctional equivalents to the elements of the various aspects describedthroughout the previous description that are known or later come to beknown to those of ordinary skill in the art are expressly incorporatedherein by reference and are intended to be encompassed by the claims.Moreover, nothing disclosed herein is intended to be dedicated to thepublic regardless of whether such disclosure is explicitly recited inthe claims. No claim element is to be construed as a means plus functionunless the element is expressly recited using the phrase “means for.”

It is understood that the specific order or hierarchy of blocks in theprocesses disclosed is an example of illustrative approaches. Based upondesign preferences, it is understood that the specific order orhierarchy of blocks in the processes may be rearranged while remainingwithin the scope of the previous description. The accompanying methodclaims present elements of the various blocks in a sample order, and arenot meant to be limited to the specific order or hierarchy presented.

The previous description of the disclosed implementations is provided toenable any person skilled in the art to make or use the disclosedsubject matter. Various modifications to these implementations will bereadily apparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principlesdefined herein may be applied to other implementations without departingfrom the spirit or scope of the previous description. Thus, the previousdescription is not intended to be limited to the implementations shownherein but is to be accorded the widest scope consistent with theprinciples and novel features disclosed herein.

The various examples illustrated and described are provided merely asexamples to illustrate various features of the claims. However, featuresshown and described with respect to any given example are notnecessarily limited to the associated example and may be used orcombined with other examples that are shown and described. Further, theclaims are not intended to be limited by any one example.

The foregoing method descriptions and the process flow diagrams areprovided merely as illustrative examples and are not intended to requireor imply that the blocks of various examples must be performed in theorder presented. As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art theorder of blocks in the foregoing examples may be performed in any order.Words such as “thereafter,” “then,” “next,” etc. are not intended tolimit the order of the blocks; these words are simply used to guide thereader through the description of the methods. Further, any reference toclaim elements in the singular, for example, using the articles “a,”“an” or “the” is not to be construed as limiting the element to thesingular.

The various illustrative logical blocks, modules, circuits, andalgorithm blocks described in connection with the examples disclosedherein may be implemented as electronic hardware, computer software, orcombinations of both. To clearly illustrate this interchangeability ofhardware and software, various illustrative components, blocks, modules,circuits, and blocks have been described above generally in terms oftheir functionality. Whether such functionality is implemented ashardware or software depends upon the particular application and designconstraints imposed on the overall system. Skilled artisans mayimplement the described functionality in varying ways for eachparticular application, but such implementation decisions should not beinterpreted as causing a departure from the scope of the presentdisclosure.

The hardware used to implement the various illustrative logics, logicalblocks, modules, and circuits described in connection with the examplesdisclosed herein may be implemented or performed with a general purposeprocessor, a DSP, an ASIC, an FPGA or other programmable logic device,discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or anycombination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein.A general-purpose processor may be a microprocessor, but, in thealternative, the processor may be any conventional processor,controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A processor may also beimplemented as a combination of computing devices, e.g., a combinationof a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality of microprocessors, one ormore microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other suchconfiguration. Alternatively, some blocks or methods may be performed bycircuitry that is specific to a given function.

In some examples, the functions described may be implemented inhardware, software, firmware, or any combination thereof. If implementedin software, the functions may be stored as one or more instructions orcode on a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium ornon-transitory processor-readable storage medium. The blocks of a methodor algorithm disclosed herein may be embodied in a processor-executablesoftware module which may reside on a non-transitory computer-readableor processor-readable storage medium. Non-transitory computer-readableor processor-readable storage media may be any storage media that may beaccessed by a computer or a processor. By way of example but notlimitation, such non-transitory computer-readable or processor-readablestorage media may include RAM, ROM, EEPROM, FLASH memory, CD-ROM orother optical disk storage, magnetic disk storage or other magneticstorage devices, or any other medium that may be used to store desiredprogram code in the form of instructions or data structures and that maybe accessed by a computer. Disk and disc, as used herein, includescompact disc (CD), laser disc, optical disc, digital versatile disc(DVD), floppy disk, and blu-ray disc where disks usually reproduce datamagnetically, while discs reproduce data optically with lasers.Combinations of the above are also included within the scope ofnon-transitory computer-readable and processor-readable media.Additionally, the operations of a method or algorithm may reside as oneor any combination or set of codes and/or instructions on anon-transitory processor-readable storage medium and/orcomputer-readable storage medium, which may be incorporated into acomputer program product.

The preceding description of the disclosed examples is provided toenable any person skilled in the art to make or use the presentdisclosure. Various modifications to these examples will be readilyapparent to those skilled in the art, and the generic principles definedherein may be applied to some examples without departing from the spiritor scope of the disclosure. Thus, the present disclosure is not intendedto be limited to the examples shown herein but is to be accorded thewidest scope consistent with the following claims and the principles andnovel features disclosed herein.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method, comprising: (a) obtaining sensor datacomprising a plurality of sensor returns from an environment of anautonomous vehicle, wherein the plurality of sensor returns includes atleast one of lidar data, radar data, or camera data; (b) extracting afirst set of features from the sensor data; (c) processing the first setof features with a machine learning model to generate, for at least asubset of the plurality of sensor returns, a first output thatclassifies a respective sensor return as corresponding to an object ornon-object and a second output that indicates a property of the object,wherein the non-object includes at least one of rain, snow, fog, smoke,or exhaust; (d) comparing the sensor returns classified as correspondingto objects to a plurality of pre-classified objects to generate one ormore generic object classifications; and (e) controlling the autonomousvehicle based at least in part on the one or more generic objectclassifications, wherein (d) comprises: (f) determining that therespective sensor return does not correspond to any of the plurality ofpre-classified objects; and in response to (f), classifying therespective sensor return as corresponding to a generic object.
 2. Themethod of claim 1, further comprising, prior to (d), filtering theplurality of sensor returns based at least in part on map data.
 3. Themethod of claim 2, wherein the map data comprises road boundaryinformation.
 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the filtering comprisesfiltering ground surface information.
 5. The method of claim 1, whereinthe generic object is debris.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein (d)comprises comparing the property of the object to correspondingproperties of the plurality of pre-classified objects.
 7. The method ofclaim 1, further comprising, prior to (d), aggregating the first andsecond outputs of the plurality of sensor returns into a plurality ofthree dimensional (3-D) voxels.
 8. The method of claim 7, wherein theaggregating comprises averaging subsets of the first and second outputsof the plurality of sensor returns.
 9. The method of claim 1, whereinthe plurality of sensor returns represent one of a range view or abird's eye view relative to the autonomous vehicle.
 10. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the property of the object includes at least one ofpredicted velocity information or predicted location informationassociated with the respective sensor return.
 11. The method of claim 1,wherein (c) comprises generating, for at least the subset of theplurality of sensor returns, a third output that classifies therespective sensor return as corresponding to a vulnerable actor ornon-vulnerable actor.
 12. A system comprising one or more processors andone or more memories operably coupled with the one or more processors,wherein the one or more memories store instructions that, in response tothe execution of the instructions by one or more processors, cause theone or more processors to perform the following operations: (a)obtaining sensor data comprising a plurality of sensor returns from anenvironment of an autonomous vehicle, wherein the plurality of sensorreturns includes at least one of lidar data, radar data, or camera data;(b) extracting a first set of features from the sensor data; (c)processing the first set of features with a machine learning model togenerate, for at least a subset of the plurality of sensor returns, afirst output that classifies a respective sensor return as correspondingto an object or non-object and a second output that indicates a propertyof the object; (d) comparing the sensor returns classified ascorresponding to objects to a plurality of pre-classified objects togenerate one or more generic object classifications; and (e) controllingthe autonomous vehicle based at least in part on the one or more genericobject classifications, wherein in performing (d), the one or moreprocessors are configured to: (f) determine that the respective sensorreturn does not correspond to any of the plurality of pre-classifiedobjects; and in response to (f), classify the respective sensor returnas corresponding to a generic object, wherein the autonomous vehicle iscontrolled based on a sensor return classified as corresponding to anobject, and the autonomous vehicle is not controlled based on a sensorreturn classified as corresponding to a non-object.
 13. The system ofclaim 12, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to:prior to (d), filter the plurality of sensor returns based at least inpart on map data.
 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the map datacomprises road boundary information.
 15. The system of claim 13, whereinin the filtering, the one or more processors are configured to filterground surface information.
 16. The system of claim 12, wherein thegeneric object is debris.
 17. The system of claim 12, wherein inperforming (d), the one or more processors are configured to compare theproperty of the object to corresponding properties of the plurality ofpre-classified objects.
 18. The system of claim 12, wherein the one ormore processors are further configured to: prior to (d), aggregate thefirst and second outputs of the plurality of sensor returns into aplurality of three dimensional (3-D) voxels.
 19. The system of claim 18,wherein in the aggregating, the one or more processors are configured toaverage subsets of the first and second outputs of the plurality ofsensor returns.
 20. The system of claim 12, wherein the plurality ofsensor returns represent one of a range view or a bird's eye viewrelative to the autonomous vehicle.
 21. The system of claim 12, whereinthe property of the object includes at least one of predicted velocityinformation or predicted location information associated with therespective sensor return.
 22. The system of claim 12, wherein inperforming (c), the one or more processors are configured to generate,for at least the subset of the plurality of sensor returns, a thirdoutput that classifies the respective sensor return as corresponding toa vulnerable actor or non-vulnerable actor.